In re Iwahashi, 1989

This case marked quite a change from earlier positions. In this case, the Federal Circuit held that a general purpose computer, running an new algorithm for pattern recognition, could be patentable subject matter.

Iwahashi’s invention related to an auto-correlation unit for use in a pattern recognition to obtain auto-correlation coefficients as for stored signal samples. One particular embodiment related to using pattern recognition in voice recognition.

The claim on appeal was:
[a] An auto-correlation unit for providing auto-correlation coefficients for use as feature parameters in pattern recognition for N pieces of sampled input values Xn(n = 0 to N – 1), said unit comprising:

[b] means for extracting N pieces of sample input values Xn from a series of sample values in an input pattern expressed with an accuracy of optional multi-bits;

[c] means for calculating the sum of the sample values Xn and Xn-r (t = 0 – P, P ≤ N);

[d] a read-only memory associated with said means for calculating;

[e] means for feeding to said read-only memory the sum of the sampled input values as an address signal;

[f] means for storing in said read-only memory the squared value of each sum, (Xn + Xn-r )2;

[g] means for fetching and outputting the squared values of each sum of the sample input values from said read-only memory when said memory is addressed by the sum of the sample input values; and

[h] means responsive to the output (Xn + Xn-r)2 of said read-only memory for providing an auto-correlation coefficient for use as a feature parameter according to …[a certain formula].

The Court stated that this case was one more in the line of cases stemming from the Supreme Court decision in Gottschalk v. Benson, decided by the Federal Circuit’s predecessor, the CCPA. Out of these cases came the Freeman-Walter test to determine whether a claim defines nonstatutory subject matter. It was stated in Freeman as follows:

Determination of whether a claim preempts nonstatutory subject matter as a whole, in the light of Benson, requires a two-step analysis. First, it must be determined whether the claim directly or indirectly recites an “algorithm” in the Benson sense of that term, for a claim which fails even to recite an algorithm clearly cannot wholly preempt an algorithm. Second, the claim must be further analyzed to ascertain whether in its entirety it wholly preempts that algorithm.

The opinion next discussed the meaning of “algorithm”:

Over-concentration on the word “algorithm” alone, for example, may mislead. The Supreme Court carefully supplied a definition of the particular algorithm before it [in Benson], i.e., “[a] procedure for solving a given type of mathematical problem.” The broader definition of algorithm is “a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or accomplishing some end.”

The Federal Circuit stated that the claim as a whole certainly defined apparatus in the form of a combination of interrelated means and the Court could not discern any logical reason why it should not be deemed statutory subject matter as either a machine or a manufacture as specified in § 101. The fact that the apparatus operates according to an algorithm does not make it nonstatutory. The Court referred to Abele, and also to the discussion of that case in Grams. We Court therefore held that the claim was directed to statutory subject matter.

The Federal Circuit noted that the Solicitor’s brief the summary of argument stated that the claim “encompasses any and every means for performing the functions recited therein.” The Federal Circuit pointed out that the claim is a combination of means all but one of which is a means-plus-function limitation, the one exception being the ROM, clause [d], which is a specific piece of apparatus. The claim is therefore subject to the limitation stated in 35 U.S.C. § 112 ¶ 6 that each means-plus-function definition “shall be construed to cover the corresponding structure, material, or acts described in the specification and equivalents thereof.” This provision precludes the Solicitor’s interpretation of the claim. The Solicitor’s summary also contends that since the claim should be interpreted as he does, the Court should regard it as though it were a method claim.

The Court then stated that since the Solicitor was wrong on the first score, he was wrong on the second.

The Federal Circuit, in its decision In re Iwahashi, effectively opened up the doors of the patent system to algorithms, particularly if some hardware, such as a ROM, was recited.

In response to this case, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office issued their own interpretation of this case in 1122 O.G. 445. They were not very happy with this case and still tended to reject applications that contained algorithms. US patent attorneys would go out of our way to avoid using words such as “algorithm” anywhere in an application. Some of us older patent attorneys still tend to cross out the word algorithm when we see it in draft patent applications.

Diamond v. Diehr and Lutton, 1981

In the History of Software Patents, this was a sensible decision.  By this time, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office was still highly reluctant to allow patent applications covering to software based inventions. In the Diamond v. Diehr case, the Supreme Court forced the USPTO to grant a patent on an invention even though computer software was utilized. The USPTO had been fairly strictly refusing to allow applications for inventions reciting algorithms. In these years, an applicant’s best shot at gaining an allowance was to disguise software as hardware; e.g., instead of reciting a comparison step, show a comparator in a block diagram for a digital machine.

This case related to a patent application for molding raw, uncured, synthetic rubber into cured precision products. The invention used measurement of actual temperature inside the mold during the curing process and used a computer calculate and control heating times. The patent examiner rejected the claims on the sole ground that they were drawn to nonstatutory subject matter under 35 U.S.C. §101 because steps in respondents’ claims that are carried out by a computer under control of a stored program constituted nonstatutory subject matter under the Supreme Court’s decision in Gottschalk v. Benson. The examiner also took the position that the remainder of the steps were already known in the industry. The Patent and Trademark Office Board of Appeals agreed with the examiner, but the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals reversed, noting that a claim drawn to subject matter otherwise statutory does not become nonstatutory because a computer is involved. The respondents claims were not directed to a mathematical algorithm or an improved method of calculation but rather recited an improved process for molding rubber articles by solving a practical problem which had arisen in the molding of rubber products. The Government sought certiorari arguing that the decision of the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals was inconsistent with prior decisions of the Supreme Court.

The invention, as defined by the claims, included not only the computer program, but also included steps relating to heating rubber, and removing the rubber from the heat. The Supreme Court found that the invention was not merely a mathematical algorithm, but was a process for molding rubber, and thus was patentable, even though the only novel feature was the timing process controlled by the computer.

More particularly, the Court stated that they viewed respondents’ claims as nothing more than a process for molding rubber products and not as an attempt to patent a mathematical formula. When a claim recites a mathematical formula (or scientific principle or phenomenon of nature), an inquiry must be made into whether the claim is seeking patent protection for that formula in the abstract. A mathematical formula as such is not accorded the protection of our patent laws, Gottschalk v. Benson, and this principle cannot be circumvented by attempting to limit the use of the formula to a particular technological environment. Parker v. Flook. Similarly, insignificant post-solution activity will not transform an unpatentable principle into a patentable process. To hold otherwise would allow a competent draftsman to evade the recognized limitations on the type of subject matter eligible for patent protection. On the other hand, when a claim containing a mathematical formula implements or applies that formula in a structure or process which, when considered as a whole, is performing a function which the patent laws were designed to protect (e.g., transforming or reducing an article to a different state or thing), then the claim satisfies the requirements of §101. Because the Court did not view the claims as an attempt to patent a mathematical formula, but rather to be drawn to an industrial process for the molding of rubber products, the Supreme Court affirmed the judgment of the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals.

The dissent stated that the claimed invention made no contribution to the art that was not entirely dependent upon the utilization of a computer in a familiar process, and they would have reversed the decision of the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals.

In re Walter, 1980

In the History of Software Patents, this is an important case.  The invention in this case related to seismic prospecting and surveying. Seismic source waves are generated and transmitted downwardly into the earth. There they are deflected by subsurface formations and anomalies. The deflected waves return to the earth’s surface and are detected by transducers, known as geophones, which are distributed on the surface over the area of exploration. The geophones convert the returning mechanical vibrations into electrical signals, which are then recorded on a record medium, such as magnetic tape or chart recorder, for analysis. By studying the records of the deflected waves, analysts are able to make determinations concerning the nature of the subsurface structure of the earth.

In a final rejection, the examiner at the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office stated that the claims were directed to the mathematical procedure outlined in the specification for cross-correlating the sets of signals. He found no reason to distinguish between the method and apparatus claims, holding that distinction to be legally immaterial “Where the only mode of practicing an invention is disclosed by way of an algorithm for use in a computer program.”

The applicant’s main contention was that his claims were not directed to a mathematical procedure but to a method that produces a physical result (the partial product signals) by physical processing of physical signals, all of which are described in mathematical terms, and to apparatus for carrying out special forms of the process.

The U.S. Court of Customs and Patent Appeals stated that the common thread running through prior decisions regarding statutory subject matter is that a principle of nature or a scientific truth (including any mathematical algorithm which expresses such a principle or truth) is not the kind of discovery or invention which the patent laws were designed to protect.

The court also stated that various indicia are helpful in determining whether a claim as a whole calls merely for the solution of a mathematical algorithm. For instance, if the end-product of a claimed invention is a pure number, as in Benson and Flook, the invention is nonstatutory regardless of any post-solution activity which makes it available for use by a person or machine for other purposes. If, however, the claimed invention produces a physical thing, such as the noiseless seismic trace in In re Johnson, the fact that it is represented in numerical form does not render the claim nonstatutory.

With regard to “means for” claims, the court noted that both the examiner and the board of appeals and interferences refused to separately consider appellant’s apparatus claims because the method and apparatus claims were deemed indistinguishable. This problem arises in computer-arts inventions when the structure in apparatus claims is defined only as “means for” performing specified functions. If the functionally-defined disclosed means and their equivalents are so broad that they encompass any and every means for performing the recited functions, the apparatus claim is an attempt to exalt form over substance since the claim is really to the method or series of functions itself. In computer-related inventions, the recited means often perform the function of “number crunching” (solving mathematical algorithms and making calculations). In such cases the burden must be placed on the applicant to demonstrate that the claims are truly drawn to specific apparatus distinct from other apparatus capable of performing the identical functions. The court went on to say that if this burden has not been discharged, the apparatus claim will be treated as if it were drawn to the method or process which encompasses all of the claimed “means” and that the statutory nature of the claim under §101 will then depend on whether the corresponding method is statutory. In this case, the court held that all of appellant’s claims should be treated as method claims because the apparatus claims differ from the method claims only in that the term “means for” has been inserted before each process step to convert the step into the “means” for performing it, wherefore they do not have separate meaning as apparatus claims.

With regard to the method claims, the court stated that correlation or cross-correlation is a mathematical exercise which relates two mathematical functions. It remains a mathematical exercise even when verbally tied to the specific end use of seismic prospecting. Although the claim preambles relate the claimed invention to the art of seismic prospecting, the claims themselves are not drawn to methods of or apparatus for seismic prospecting; they are drawn to improved mathematical methods for interpreting the results of seismic prospecting.

The court stated that specific end use recited in the preambles does not save the claims from the holding in Flook, since they are drawn to methods of calculation, albeit improved. Examination of each claim demonstrates that each has no substance apart from the calculations involved. The calculations are the beginning and end of the claims. The court therefore held that this case falls squarely within the holding in Flook, and the claims must be held to be nonstatutory.

In re Freeman, 1978

In the History of Software Patents, this is an important case.  The subject matter of Freeman’s invention was a system for typesetting alphanumeric information, using a computer-based control system in conjunction with a phototypesetter of conventional design. The claims included claims directed to methods of controlling a computer display system, as well as claims to a hierarchical “tree structure” computer storage arrangement. U.S. Patent and Trademark Office had rejected the patent application on the basis that the Benson case precluded patentability of an invention where the only novel part was the computer program.

The U.S. Court of Customs and Patent Appeals noted that with no reference to the nature of the algorithm involved, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office’s Board of Appeals board merely stated that the coverage sought “in practical effect would be a patent on the algorithm itself.” Though the board gave no clear reasons for so concluding, its approach would appear to be that every implementation with a programmed computer equals “algorithm” in the Benson sense. If that rubric was the law, every claimed method that can be so implemented would equal nonstatutory subject matter under 35 USC 101.

The Court noted that a claim expressed in “means for” terms, though said to be an apparatus claim, may be indistinguishable from that of a method claim drawn to the steps performed by the “means.” The court agreed with the solicitor’s contention that if allowance of a method claim is proscribed by Benson, it would be anomalous to grant a claim to apparatus encompassing any and every “means for” practicing that very method.

The court held that because neither the apparatus claims nor the present method claims recite or preempt a mathematical algorithm as forbidden by Benson, both sets of claims are immune from a rejection based solely on the opinion in that case. The court then reversed the decision of the board rejecting claims 1-10 under 35 USC 101.

This case has been cited for laying out a two part test:

First, it must be determined whether the claim directly or indirectly recites an ” algorithm” in the Benson sense of that term, for a claim which fails even to recite an algorithm clearly cannot wholly preempt an algorithm.

Second, the claim must be further analyzed to ascertain whether in its entirety it wholly preempts that algorithm.

Gottschalk v. Benson, 1972

In the History of Software Patents, this is an important early Supreme Court case.  In 1972, the U.S. Supreme Court reviewed a case involving patent application describing an invention as a method for converting binary-coded decimal numerals into pure binary numerals in a general purpose digital computer. The Court found that the invention was not patentable. The Supreme Court stated that this decision did not preclude ever finding a computer program patentable.
However, for years after this case came out, patent office examiners felt that no software was patentable, and they would routinely issue 101 rejections against patent applications that contained the word “algorithm.” A direct quote from the Gottschalk v. Benson case follows:

It is argued that a process patent must either be tied to a particular machine or apparatus or must operate to change articles or materials to a “different state or thing.” We do not hold that no process patent could ever qualify if it did not meet the requirements of our prior precedents. It is said that the decision precludes a patent for any program servicing a computer. We do not so hold. It is said that we have before us a program for a digital computer but extend our holding to programs for analog computers. We have, however, made clear from the start that we deal with a program only for digital computers. It is said we freeze process patents to old technologies, leaving no room for the revelations of the new, onrushing technology. Such is not our purpose. What we come down to in a nutshell is the following.
It is conceded that one may not patent an idea. But in practical effect that would be the result if the formula for converting BCD numerals to pure binary numerals were patented in this case. The mathematical formula involved here has no substantial practical application except in connection with a digital computer, which means that if the judgment below is affirmed, the patent would wholly pre-empt the mathematical formula and in practical effect would be a patent on the algorithm itself.
It may be that the patent laws should be extended to cover these programs, a policy matter to which we are not competent to speak. The President’s Commission on the Patent System rejected the proposal that these programs be patentable:

    “Uncertainty now exists as to whether the statute permits a valid patent to be granted on programs. Direct attempts to patent programs have been rejected on the ground of nonstatutory subject matter. Indirect attempts to obtain patents and avoid the rejection, by drafting claims as a process, or a machine or components thereof programmed in a given manner, rather than as a program itself, have confused the issue further and should not be permitted.
    “The Patent Office now cannot examine applications for programs because of a lack of a classification technique and the requisite search files. Even if these were available, reliable searches would not be feasible or economic because of the tremendous volume of prior art being generated. Without this search, the patenting of programs would be tantamount to mere registration and the presumption of validity would be all but nonexistent.
    “It is noted that the creation of programs has undergone substantial and satisfactory growth in the absence of patent protection and that copyright protection for programs is presently available.”

If these programs are to be patentable, considerable problems are raised which only committees of Congress can manage, for broad powers of investigation are needed, including hearings which canvass the wide variety of views which those operating in this field entertain. The technological problems tendered in the many briefs before us indicate to us that considered action by the Congress is needed.